TOXIC METAL LEVELS NIGERIAN ELECTRONIC WASTE WORKERS INDICATE OCCUPATIONAL METAL TOXICITY ASSOCIATED WITH CRUDE ELECTRONIC WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - Biokemistri, Vol. 26, No. 4.

Recently, The Guardian's article: "Toxic 'e-waste' dumped in poor nations, says United Nations", outlines the severity of the illegal dumping of what is being referred to as 'e-waste' within developing countries. John Vidal, who is the author of the publication, lists the many hazards of dumping discarded electronics has on both the environment and the locals. Because the areas being used as trash sites for the Wests' addiction of consumer goods, the people - often times small children - use this as a means for income. Because the locals within the exploited communities lack adequate resources, most times they burn the plastics in order to retrieve the metals. This is obviously a health risk.

Vidal goes onto state that the global volume of electronic goods is expected to grow by 33% within the next four years, and that it is now the fastest growing system of waste, with China and the US being on top for the most consumption. The European Environment Agency estimates that between 250,000 tonnes to 1.3 million tonnes of used electronic goods are illegally shipped out of the European Union each year. And while it is highly illegal to ship discarded goods to developing countries, Vidal suggests that they are falsely labeled and packaged as 'used goods' in order to get through customs.

While this is no new issue, it has to be said that it is exciting to see more attention being brought to this serious issue. Igaharo et al. in their journal: "Toxic Metal Levels Nigerian Electronic Waste Workers Indicate Occupational Metal Toxicity Associated With Crude Electronic Waste Management Practices", thoroughly evaluate the health risks associated with electronic waste metals within Nigeria.

In the study, they evaluated the toxic metal levels in Nigerians who have been occupationally exposed to e-waste. Large levels of Lead, Mercury, Arsenic, Cadmium, and Chromium were detected within the blood tests of the Nigerian e-waste workers. To unsure a non-biased study, age-matched non-exposed participants were also studied using: standard electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. 

The results showed statistically significant elevated levels of toxic metals within the workers compared to the non-exposed study group (see: article for scientific measurements). Additionally, data indicated that elevated levels of toxic metals within the e-waste exposed population is directly related to the e-waste management practices within Nigeria. The potential for serious health effects, such as kidney disease and cancer; proceeded by genome instability and depressed immune response were highlighted within the study. 



For this journal and others from this issue, click here.

Almost 38% of pregnant women in this study were found to have prenatal vitamin A deficiency -- Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition Vol.31 No.2

This week we will be featuring the Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition on the blog. 

Today we are featuring vol.31 no.2. This issue includes "Prevalence and Correlates of Prenatal Vitamin A Deficiency in Rural Sidama, Southern Ethiopia" by Gebresalassie et al. This study examines the correlation and prevalence of prenatal vitamin A deficiency in rural Sidama, Southern Ethiopia. Seven hundred pregnant women were randomly selected for the study. High-performance liquid chromatography determined serum retinol concentration. Researchers analyzed data using logistic and linear regression. The results indicated that prenatal vitamin A deficiency was found in almost 38% of cases. The odds of having prenatal vitamin A deficiency was higher in women who did not have a self-earned income or education. Women between the ages of 35 and 49 had over 2 times the odds of having prenatal vitamin A deficiency than women between the ages of 15 and 24 years. The results also indicated that the lower the dietary diversity score before the survey, the higher the odds of vitamin A deficiency.

"Sleeping under Insecticide-treated Nets to Prevent Malaria in Nigeria: What Do We Know?" by Oneyeho is also featured in this issue. This study was conducted through focus group discussions in 3 geopolitcal zones in Nigeria to assess the usage of insecticide-treated nets to protect against the Plasmodium falciparum parasite. Through these focus group discussions, it was found that people had poor knowledge of mosquito bites and malaria, which resulted in improper usage. Among the improper usage was using the nets as door and window blinds with the misconception that this would protect the entire house. Only two nets were given per household. The study concluded that community structures such as places of worship could be used to educate the community about health and malaria.

These articles and other articles from this issue can be found here.

Over 80% of motorcycle accidents in Brazil resulted in fractures -- Tanzania Journal of Health Research Vol.15 No.4

Today we are featuring our fifth post on the Tanzania Journal of Health Research with vol.15 no.4. 

This issue includes "Influence of gender on prevalence of overweight and obesity in Nigerian schoolchildren and adolescents" by Maruf et al. This article aims to examine the correlation between gender and weight of students in Nigeria. The age and gender of the students was collected through the school records. Data such as height, weight, BMI were collected through standard techniques. 9014 students age 2-18 from 28 randomly selected schools were examined for this study. The results indicated that age groups played a role in whether males or females had a higher BMI. Among the results suggested that among students age 2-6 years, males had higher BMIs than females, and that for the age groups 11-14 and 15-18, females had significantly higher BMIs than males. The study concludes than in early childhood, males have a higher BMI than females and in adolescence, females have a higher BMI than males.

Motorcycles are commonly used in the developing world. "Motorcycle Accidents: Morbidity and Associated Factors in a city of Northeast of Brazil" by Cavalcanti et al. looks at the causes and incidence of mortality from motorcycle accidents. The study examined 9743 cases of patients who checked in at the Regional Emergency and Trauma Hospital of Campina Grande in Paraiba, Brazil between January to December 2009. The results indicated that motorcycle accidents made up over 20% of cases. Of those cases, over 85% involved men. Of these cases involving men, almost 34% were between the ages of 21 to 29 years. The body parts most affected in these accidents were legs and feet, which were affected in 55.2% of cases. Arms and hands were affected in almost 27% of cases. Over 80% of cases involved fractures. Over 15% of cases involved amputation. Only 1.3% of cases resulted in death. The study concluded that motorcycle accidents affect mostly young men and cause fractures and lesions predominantly in the lower limbs. The study recommends that education and policy surrounding traffic safety and motorcycles need to be examined.

You can find these articles and other articles from this issue here.

Clinical practices could affect immunisation delay of infants - Tanzania Journal of Health Research Vol.15 No.3

Source: Pete Lewis/Department of International Development

Today we are featuring Tanzania Journal of Health Research Vol.15 No.3 on the blog.

This issue includes "High prevalence of tuberculosis diagnosed during autopsy examination at Muhimbili National hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania" by Kilale et, which examines the failures of diagnosing TB, leading to premature death and unrecognized transmission of TB. The aim of the study was to obtain quantitative data on TB cases identified during the autopsy and retrieve missed TB cases that were not previously reported in Tanzania. The study was conducted at the Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Records were obtained for each patient included demographic information, past medical history, chest-xray reports, clinical diagnoses and causes of death, among others. Lung tissues, lymphnodes and blood clots for HIV testing were also collected. Tissues were examined by microscopy and processed through Ziehl Nielsen staining. Among the 74 patients, 56 were males. The results also indicated that 34 patients received a TB diagnosis before death.

Immunisation of infants is extremely important to prevent infant mortality and spread of preventable diseases. "Factors contributing to delay in commencement of immunisation in Nigerian infants" by Sadoh et al. discusses this topic in-depth. The study examines the factors that prevent or delay immunisation in Benin City, Nigeria. 153 mothers bringing their infants for their first immunisation to the Institute of Child Health Child Welfare clinic at the University of Benin in Benin City were asked questions for the study. Times for bringing in their infants varied between mothers. Only two mothers had their infants immunised within 24 hours of birth, with 66 mothers had their infants immunised at a week old or younger. Among the reasons for not having their infants immunised within 24 hours was that Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine for tuberculosis was only administered on a specific day. There were also mothers who were not knowledgeable of when infants should be immunised. The results indicated that mothers from a low socio-economic class and mothers with less than 12 years of schooling were less likely to have their infants immunized at a week old or younger. The study suggests that clinics change their practices to allow for daily immunisation, as well as training of health care practitioners on the importance of immunisation as soon as possible.

These articles and other articles from this issue can be found here.

Esha Homenauth - A Student Perspective: Determinants of Under-five Mortality in Nigeria

Infant mortality has declined globally by 2.2% between 1990 and 2010,(Rajaratnam et al. 2010), but still falls short of the estimated 4.4% needed to achieve the 4th Millennium Development Goal (MDG 4). Nigeria, the largest country in West Africa, accounted for 12% of the global under-five mortality (U5M) in 2008 (UNICEF, 2010). An unusual trend in U5M decline exists in Nigeria as a result of inconsistencies in the data available for analyses. Currently, the rate of U5M in Nigeria is far behind the decline rate of 11.0% per year needed to acquire the MGD4 in West and Central Africa.

Interventions that target child health need to be efficient in prioritizing scarce resources. A study conducted by Akinyemi et al., published in the African Population Studies Vol 27, No.1, addressed the trends in U5M determinants in Nigeria and determined how the independent contribution of these determinants influenced changes in under-five mortality risks. In this study, a re-analysis of representative sample data collected during the Nigerian Demographic and Health Surveys (NDHS) of 1990, 1999, 2003 and 2008 was done. Eligible women between the ages of 15-49 years in selected households were interviewed. They were asked questions about their summary (number of children born and survived)and detailed reproductive history (sex and date of every live birth, survival status at time of interview, current age of surviving children and age at death).

Results from this study indicated that there was an increase in U5M deaths between 1990 - 2003, but later reduced in 2003-2008. Greater reductions however, were observed in mortality during age 1-4 years than during infancy (0-11 months). A number of variables were observed to have varying degrees of influence on U5M risk. Improvements in the level of maternal and paternal education (through the introduction of universal basic education) was observed to be a significant indicator in the decline of infant mortality. Improvements in antenatal care, skilled delivery, contraceptive use and tetanus toxoid injection during pregnancy were observed to improve U5M mortality risk, however, little change has been observed in these areas of maternal health between 1990 - 2008; largely as a result of population expansion while the number of health facilities and personnel remain unchanged. Improvements in childhood vaccination and oral rehydration therapy has also resulted in a decline in infant mortality. Reduced access to potable drinking water and toilet facilities were observed to increase the risks of under-five deaths.

This study was successful in demonstrating that the effect of changes on mortality risk is proportional to the magnitude of the changes in the determinants. Reduction in U5M risk requires a combination of factors such as maternal education, antenatal care, childhood vaccinations, improvements in household environmental health and birth spacing.

From the perspective of a Health Studies student, this study provides important policy implications for Public Health. Improvements in female education, behavioural/health-related, household environmental health factors and birth practices will result in a reduction in under-five mortality. Promoting birth space is imperative country-wide, as well as improvements in the quality of maternal and child health services. With Bioline International providing open access to articles from this journal, important discussions about the issue of under-five mortality can be stimulated, and relevant interventions can be implicated. As mentioned, disparities in under-five mortality trends in Nigeria exists as a result of insufficient data. Interventions that target improvements in collection of data and analysis is important such that policy implications can be made and resources can be efficiently targeted.

Akinyemi, J.O., Bamgboye, E.A., Ayeni, O.(2013)New trends in under-five mortality determinants and their effects on child survival in Nigeria: A review of childhood mortality data from 1990-2008. African Population Studies, 27(1): 25-42